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- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
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- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
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-
- <section id="modules">
- <span id="tut-modules"></span><h1><span class="section-number">6. </span>Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h1>
- <p>If you quit from the Python interpreter and enter it again, the definitions you
- have made (functions and variables) are lost. Therefore, if you want to write a
- somewhat longer program, you are better off using a text editor to prepare the
- input for the interpreter and running it with that file as input instead. This
- is known as creating a <em>script</em>. As your program gets longer, you may want to
- split it into several files for easier maintenance. You may also want to use a
- handy function that you’ve written in several programs without copying its
- definition into each program.</p>
- <p>To support this, Python has a way to put definitions in a file and use them in a
- script or in an interactive instance of the interpreter. Such a file is called a
- <em>module</em>; definitions from a module can be <em>imported</em> into other modules or into
- the <em>main</em> module (the collection of variables that you have access to in a
- script executed at the top level and in calculator mode).</p>
- <p>A module is a file containing Python definitions and statements. The file name
- is the module name with the suffix <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> appended. Within a module, the
- module’s name (as a string) is available as the value of the global variable
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code>. For instance, use your favorite text editor to create a file
- called <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo.py</span></code> in the current directory with the following contents:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="c1"># Fibonacci numbers module</span>
- <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># write Fibonacci series up to n</span>
- <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
- <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
- <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">end</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="s1">' '</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
- <span class="nb">print</span><span class="p">()</span>
- <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">n</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># return Fibonacci series up to n</span>
- <span class="n">result</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[]</span>
- <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="mi">0</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">1</span>
- <span class="k">while</span> <span class="n">a</span> <span class="o"><</span> <span class="n">n</span><span class="p">:</span>
- <span class="n">result</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">a</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="n">a</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">b</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">b</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">a</span><span class="o">+</span><span class="n">b</span>
- <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">result</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Now enter the Python interpreter and import this module with the following
- command:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This does not add the names of the functions defined in <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> directly to
- the current <a class="reference internal" href="../glossary.html#term-namespace"><span class="xref std std-term">namespace</span></a> (see <a class="reference internal" href="classes.html#tut-scopes"><span class="std std-ref">Python Scopes and Namespaces</span></a> for more details);
- it only adds the module name <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> there. Using
- the module name you can access the functions:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib2</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">100</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">[0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89]</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="vm">__name__</span>
- <span class="go">'fibo'</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>If you intend to use a function often you can assign it to a local name:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <section id="more-on-modules">
- <span id="tut-moremodules"></span><h2><span class="section-number">6.1. </span>More on Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#more-on-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
- <p>A module can contain executable statements as well as function definitions.
- These statements are intended to initialize the module. They are executed only
- the <em>first</em> time the module name is encountered in an import statement. <a class="footnote-reference brackets" href="#id3" id="id1">1</a>
- (They are also run if the file is executed as a script.)</p>
- <p>Each module has its own private namespace, which is used as the global namespace
- by all functions defined in the module. Thus, the author of a module can
- use global variables in the module without worrying about accidental clashes
- with a user’s global variables. On the other hand, if you know what you are
- doing you can touch a module’s global variables with the same notation used to
- refer to its functions, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">modname.itemname</span></code>.</p>
- <p>Modules can import other modules. It is customary but not required to place all
- <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements at the beginning of a module (or script, for that
- matter). The imported module names, if placed at the top level of a module
- (outside any functions or classes), are added to the module’s global namespace.</p>
- <p>There is a variant of the <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement that imports names from a
- module directly into the importing module’s namespace. For example:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">fib2</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This does not introduce the module name from which the imports are taken in the
- local namespace (so in the example, <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fibo</span></code> is not defined).</p>
- <p>There is even a variant to import all names that a module defines:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This imports all names except those beginning with an underscore (<code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">_</span></code>).
- In most cases Python programmers do not use this facility since it introduces
- an unknown set of names into the interpreter, possibly hiding some things
- you have already defined.</p>
- <p>Note that in general the practice of importing <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">*</span></code> from a module or package is
- frowned upon, since it often causes poorly readable code. However, it is okay to
- use it to save typing in interactive sessions.</p>
- <p>If the module name is followed by <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code>, then the name
- following <code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">as</span></code> is bound directly to the imported module.</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="nn">fib</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This is effectively importing the module in the same way that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">fibo</span></code>
- will do, with the only difference of it being available as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">fib</span></code>.</p>
- <p>It can also be used when utilising <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#from"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span></code></a> with similar effects:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">fib</span> <span class="k">as</span> <span class="n">fibonacci</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fibonacci</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="mi">500</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <div class="admonition note">
- <p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
- <p>For efficiency reasons, each module is only imported once per interpreter
- session. Therefore, if you change your modules, you must restart the
- interpreter – or, if it’s just one module you want to test interactively,
- use <a class="reference internal" href="../library/importlib.html#importlib.reload" title="importlib.reload"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">importlib.reload()</span></code></a>, e.g. <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">importlib;</span>
- <span class="pre">importlib.reload(modulename)</span></code>.</p>
- </div>
- <section id="executing-modules-as-scripts">
- <span id="tut-modulesasscripts"></span><h3><span class="section-number">6.1.1. </span>Executing modules as scripts<a class="headerlink" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p>When you run a Python module with</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">python</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">py</span> <span class="o"><</span><span class="n">arguments</span><span class="o">></span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>the code in the module will be executed, just as if you imported it, but with
- the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__name__</span></code> set to <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">"__main__"</span></code>. That means that by adding this code at
- the end of your module:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="k">if</span> <span class="vm">__name__</span> <span class="o">==</span> <span class="s2">"__main__"</span><span class="p">:</span>
- <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
- <span class="n">fib</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">int</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">argv</span><span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]))</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>you can make the file usable as a script as well as an importable module,
- because the code that parses the command line only runs if the module is
- executed as the “main” file:</p>
- <div class="highlight-shell-session notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">$ </span>python<span class="w"> </span>fibo.py<span class="w"> </span><span class="m">50</span>
- <span class="go">0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>If the module is imported, the code is not run:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
- <span class="gp">>>></span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This is often used either to provide a convenient user interface to a module, or
- for testing purposes (running the module as a script executes a test suite).</p>
- </section>
- <section id="the-module-search-path">
- <span id="tut-searchpath"></span><h3><span class="section-number">6.1.2. </span>The Module Search Path<a class="headerlink" href="#the-module-search-path" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p id="index-0">When a module named <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam</span></code> is imported, the interpreter first searches for
- a built-in module with that name. These module names are listed in
- <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.builtin_module_names" title="sys.builtin_module_names"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.builtin_module_names</span></code></a>. If not found, it then searches for a file
- named <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">spam.py</span></code> in a list of directories given by the variable
- <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a> is initialized from these locations:</p>
- <ul class="simple">
- <li><p>The directory containing the input script (or the current directory when no
- file is specified).</p></li>
- <li><p><span class="target" id="index-1"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> (a list of directory names, with the same syntax as the
- shell variable <span class="target" id="index-2"></span><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PATH</span></code>).</p></li>
- <li><p>The installation-dependent default (by convention including a
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site-packages</span></code> directory, handled by the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/site.html#module-site" title="site: Module responsible for site-specific configuration."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">site</span></code></a> module).</p></li>
- </ul>
- <p>More details are at <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys_path_init.html#sys-path-init"><span class="std std-ref">The initialization of the sys.path module search path</span></a>.</p>
- <div class="admonition note">
- <p class="admonition-title">Note</p>
- <p>On file systems which support symlinks, the directory containing the input
- script is calculated after the symlink is followed. In other words the
- directory containing the symlink is <strong>not</strong> added to the module search path.</p>
- </div>
- <p>After initialization, Python programs can modify <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#sys.path" title="sys.path"><code class="xref py py-data docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code></a>. The
- directory containing the script being run is placed at the beginning of the
- search path, ahead of the standard library path. This means that scripts in that
- directory will be loaded instead of modules of the same name in the library
- directory. This is an error unless the replacement is intended. See section
- <a class="reference internal" href="#tut-standardmodules"><span class="std std-ref">Standard Modules</span></a> for more information.</p>
- </section>
- <section id="compiled-python-files">
- <span id="tut-pycache"></span><h3><span class="section-number">6.1.3. </span>“Compiled” Python files<a class="headerlink" href="#compiled-python-files" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p>To speed up loading modules, Python caches the compiled version of each module
- in the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__</span></code> directory under the name <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">module.</span><em><span class="pre">version</span></em><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>,
- where the version encodes the format of the compiled file; it generally contains
- the Python version number. For example, in CPython release 3.3 the compiled
- version of spam.py would be cached as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__pycache__/spam.cpython-33.pyc</span></code>. This
- naming convention allows compiled modules from different releases and different
- versions of Python to coexist.</p>
- <p>Python checks the modification date of the source against the compiled version
- to see if it’s out of date and needs to be recompiled. This is a completely
- automatic process. Also, the compiled modules are platform-independent, so the
- same library can be shared among systems with different architectures.</p>
- <p>Python does not check the cache in two circumstances. First, it always
- recompiles and does not store the result for the module that’s loaded directly
- from the command line. Second, it does not check the cache if there is no
- source module. To support a non-source (compiled only) distribution, the
- compiled module must be in the source directory, and there must not be a source
- module.</p>
- <p>Some tips for experts:</p>
- <ul class="simple">
- <li><p>You can use the <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-O"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code></a> or <a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#cmdoption-OO"><code class="xref std std-option docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code></a> switches on the Python command
- to reduce the size of a compiled module. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-O</span></code> switch removes assert
- statements, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">-OO</span></code> switch removes both assert statements and __doc__
- strings. Since some programs may rely on having these available, you should
- only use this option if you know what you’re doing. “Optimized” modules have
- an <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">opt-</span></code> tag and are usually smaller. Future releases may
- change the effects of optimization.</p></li>
- <li><p>A program doesn’t run any faster when it is read from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code>
- file than when it is read from a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.py</span></code> file; the only thing that’s faster
- about <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.pyc</span></code> files is the speed with which they are loaded.</p></li>
- <li><p>The module <a class="reference internal" href="../library/compileall.html#module-compileall" title="compileall: Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">compileall</span></code></a> can create .pyc files for all modules in a
- directory.</p></li>
- <li><p>There is more detail on this process, including a flow chart of the
- decisions, in <span class="target" id="index-3"></span><a class="pep reference external" href="https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/"><strong>PEP 3147</strong></a>.</p></li>
- </ul>
- </section>
- </section>
- <section id="standard-modules">
- <span id="tut-standardmodules"></span><h2><span class="section-number">6.2. </span>Standard Modules<a class="headerlink" href="#standard-modules" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
- <p id="index-4">Python comes with a library of standard modules, described in a separate
- document, the Python Library Reference (“Library Reference” hereafter). Some
- modules are built into the interpreter; these provide access to operations that
- are not part of the core of the language but are nevertheless built in, either
- for efficiency or to provide access to operating system primitives such as
- system calls. The set of such modules is a configuration option which also
- depends on the underlying platform. For example, the <a class="reference internal" href="../library/winreg.html#module-winreg" title="winreg: Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry. (Windows)"><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">winreg</span></code></a> module is only
- provided on Windows systems. One particular module deserves some attention:
- <a class="reference internal" href="../library/sys.html#module-sys" title="sys: Access system-specific parameters and functions."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys</span></code></a>, which is built into every Python interpreter. The variables
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps1</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.ps2</span></code> define the strings used as primary and secondary
- prompts:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span>
- <span class="go">'>>> '</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps2</span>
- <span class="go">'... '</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">ps1</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="s1">'C> '</span>
- <span class="go">C> print('Yuck!')</span>
- <span class="go">Yuck!</span>
- <span class="go">C></span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>These two variables are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode.</p>
- <p>The variable <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> is a list of strings that determines the interpreter’s
- search path for modules. It is initialized to a default path taken from the
- environment variable <span class="target" id="index-5"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a>, or from a built-in default if
- <span class="target" id="index-6"></span><a class="reference internal" href="../using/cmdline.html#envvar-PYTHONPATH"><code class="xref std std-envvar docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">PYTHONPATH</span></code></a> is not set. You can modify it using standard list
- operations:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">path</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">append</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="s1">'/ufs/guido/lib/python'</span><span class="p">)</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- </section>
- <section id="the-dir-function">
- <span id="tut-dir"></span><h2><span class="section-number">6.3. </span>The <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> Function<a class="headerlink" href="#the-dir-function" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
- <p>The built-in function <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> is used to find out which names a module
- defines. It returns a sorted list of strings:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span><span class="o">,</span> <span class="nn">sys</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">fibo</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">['__name__', 'fib', 'fib2']</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">sys</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">['__breakpointhook__', '__displayhook__', '__doc__', '__excepthook__',</span>
- <span class="go"> '__interactivehook__', '__loader__', '__name__', '__package__', '__spec__',</span>
- <span class="go"> '__stderr__', '__stdin__', '__stdout__', '__unraisablehook__',</span>
- <span class="go"> '_clear_type_cache', '_current_frames', '_debugmallocstats', '_framework',</span>
- <span class="go"> '_getframe', '_git', '_home', '_xoptions', 'abiflags', 'addaudithook',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'api_version', 'argv', 'audit', 'base_exec_prefix', 'base_prefix',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'breakpointhook', 'builtin_module_names', 'byteorder', 'call_tracing',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'callstats', 'copyright', 'displayhook', 'dont_write_bytecode', 'exc_info',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'excepthook', 'exec_prefix', 'executable', 'exit', 'flags', 'float_info',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'float_repr_style', 'get_asyncgen_hooks', 'get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'getallocatedblocks', 'getdefaultencoding', 'getdlopenflags',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'getfilesystemencodeerrors', 'getfilesystemencoding', 'getprofile',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'getrecursionlimit', 'getrefcount', 'getsizeof', 'getswitchinterval',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'gettrace', 'hash_info', 'hexversion', 'implementation', 'int_info',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'intern', 'is_finalizing', 'last_traceback', 'last_type', 'last_value',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'maxsize', 'maxunicode', 'meta_path', 'modules', 'path', 'path_hooks',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'path_importer_cache', 'platform', 'prefix', 'ps1', 'ps2', 'pycache_prefix',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'set_asyncgen_hooks', 'set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth', 'setdlopenflags',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'setprofile', 'setrecursionlimit', 'setswitchinterval', 'settrace', 'stderr',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'stdin', 'stdout', 'thread_info', 'unraisablehook', 'version', 'version_info',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'warnoptions']</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Without arguments, <a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> lists the names you have defined currently:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">a</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">2</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">3</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="mi">5</span><span class="p">]</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">fibo</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="n">fib</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="n">fibo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">fib</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">()</span>
- <span class="go">['__builtins__', '__name__', 'a', 'fib', 'fibo', 'sys']</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Note that it lists all types of names: variables, modules, functions, etc.</p>
- <p id="index-7"><a class="reference internal" href="../library/functions.html#dir" title="dir"><code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code></a> does not list the names of built-in functions and variables. If you
- want a list of those, they are defined in the standard module
- <a class="reference internal" href="../library/builtins.html#module-builtins" title="builtins: The module that provides the built-in namespace."><code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">builtins</span></code></a>:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">builtins</span>
- <span class="gp">>>> </span><span class="nb">dir</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">builtins</span><span class="p">)</span>
- <span class="go">['ArithmeticError', 'AssertionError', 'AttributeError', 'BaseException',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'BlockingIOError', 'BrokenPipeError', 'BufferError', 'BytesWarning',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'ChildProcessError', 'ConnectionAbortedError', 'ConnectionError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'ConnectionRefusedError', 'ConnectionResetError', 'DeprecationWarning',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'EOFError', 'Ellipsis', 'EnvironmentError', 'Exception', 'False',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'FileExistsError', 'FileNotFoundError', 'FloatingPointError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'FutureWarning', 'GeneratorExit', 'IOError', 'ImportError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'ImportWarning', 'IndentationError', 'IndexError', 'InterruptedError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'IsADirectoryError', 'KeyError', 'KeyboardInterrupt', 'LookupError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'MemoryError', 'NameError', 'None', 'NotADirectoryError', 'NotImplemented',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'NotImplementedError', 'OSError', 'OverflowError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'PendingDeprecationWarning', 'PermissionError', 'ProcessLookupError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'ReferenceError', 'ResourceWarning', 'RuntimeError', 'RuntimeWarning',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'StopIteration', 'SyntaxError', 'SyntaxWarning', 'SystemError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'SystemExit', 'TabError', 'TimeoutError', 'True', 'TypeError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'UnboundLocalError', 'UnicodeDecodeError', 'UnicodeEncodeError',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'UnicodeError', 'UnicodeTranslateError', 'UnicodeWarning', 'UserWarning',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'ValueError', 'Warning', 'ZeroDivisionError', '_', '__build_class__',</span>
- <span class="go"> '__debug__', '__doc__', '__import__', '__name__', '__package__', 'abs',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'all', 'any', 'ascii', 'bin', 'bool', 'bytearray', 'bytes', 'callable',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'chr', 'classmethod', 'compile', 'complex', 'copyright', 'credits',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'delattr', 'dict', 'dir', 'divmod', 'enumerate', 'eval', 'exec', 'exit',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'filter', 'float', 'format', 'frozenset', 'getattr', 'globals', 'hasattr',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'hash', 'help', 'hex', 'id', 'input', 'int', 'isinstance', 'issubclass',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'iter', 'len', 'license', 'list', 'locals', 'map', 'max', 'memoryview',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'min', 'next', 'object', 'oct', 'open', 'ord', 'pow', 'print', 'property',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'quit', 'range', 'repr', 'reversed', 'round', 'set', 'setattr', 'slice',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'sorted', 'staticmethod', 'str', 'sum', 'super', 'tuple', 'type', 'vars',</span>
- <span class="go"> 'zip']</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- </section>
- <section id="packages">
- <span id="tut-packages"></span><h2><span class="section-number">6.4. </span>Packages<a class="headerlink" href="#packages" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h2>
- <p>Packages are a way of structuring Python’s module namespace by using “dotted
- module names”. For example, the module name <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A.B</span></code> designates a submodule
- named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">B</span></code> in a package named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">A</span></code>. Just like the use of modules saves the
- authors of different modules from having to worry about each other’s global
- variable names, the use of dotted module names saves the authors of multi-module
- packages like NumPy or Pillow from having to worry about
- each other’s module names.</p>
- <p>Suppose you want to design a collection of modules (a “package”) for the uniform
- handling of sound files and sound data. There are many different sound file
- formats (usually recognized by their extension, for example: <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.wav</span></code>,
- <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.aiff</span></code>, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">.au</span></code>), so you may need to create and maintain a growing
- collection of modules for the conversion between the various file formats.
- There are also many different operations you might want to perform on sound data
- (such as mixing, adding echo, applying an equalizer function, creating an
- artificial stereo effect), so in addition you will be writing a never-ending
- stream of modules to perform these operations. Here’s a possible structure for
- your package (expressed in terms of a hierarchical filesystem):</p>
- <div class="highlight-text notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span>sound/ Top-level package
- __init__.py Initialize the sound package
- formats/ Subpackage for file format conversions
- __init__.py
- wavread.py
- wavwrite.py
- aiffread.py
- aiffwrite.py
- auread.py
- auwrite.py
- ...
- effects/ Subpackage for sound effects
- __init__.py
- echo.py
- surround.py
- reverse.py
- ...
- filters/ Subpackage for filters
- __init__.py
- equalizer.py
- vocoder.py
- karaoke.py
- ...
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>When importing the package, Python searches through the directories on
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sys.path</span></code> looking for the package subdirectory.</p>
- <p>The <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> files are required to make Python treat directories
- containing the file as packages. This prevents directories with a common name,
- such as <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">string</span></code>, from unintentionally hiding valid modules that occur later
- on the module search path. In the simplest case, <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> can just be
- an empty file, but it can also execute initialization code for the package or
- set the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> variable, described later.</p>
- <p>Users of the package can import individual modules from the package, for
- example:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects.echo</span></code>. It must be referenced with
- its full name.</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">sound</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">effects</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>An alternative way of importing the submodule is:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This also loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, and makes it available without its
- package prefix, so it can be used as follows:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echo</span><span class="o">.</span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Yet another variation is to import the desired function or variable directly:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">echofilter</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Again, this loads the submodule <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code>, but this makes its function
- <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echofilter()</span></code> directly available:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">echofilter</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="nb">input</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">output</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">delay</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mf">0.7</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="n">atten</span><span class="o">=</span><span class="mi">4</span><span class="p">)</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Note that when using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item</span></code>, the item can be either a
- submodule (or subpackage) of the package, or some other name defined in the
- package, like a function, class or variable. The <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code> statement first
- tests whether the item is defined in the package; if not, it assumes it is a
- module and attempts to load it. If it fails to find it, an <a class="reference internal" href="../library/exceptions.html#ImportError" title="ImportError"><code class="xref py py-exc docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">ImportError</span></code></a>
- exception is raised.</p>
- <p>Contrarily, when using syntax like <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">item.subitem.subsubitem</span></code>, each item
- except for the last must be a package; the last item can be a module or a
- package but can’t be a class or function or variable defined in the previous
- item.</p>
- <section id="importing-from-a-package">
- <span id="tut-pkg-import-star"></span><h3><span class="section-number">6.4.1. </span>Importing * From a Package<a class="headerlink" href="#importing-from-a-package" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p id="index-8">Now what happens when the user writes <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>? Ideally,
- one would hope that this somehow goes out to the filesystem, finds which
- submodules are present in the package, and imports them all. This could take a
- long time and importing sub-modules might have unwanted side-effects that should
- only happen when the sub-module is explicitly imported.</p>
- <p>The only solution is for the package author to provide an explicit index of the
- package. The <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statement uses the following convention: if a package’s
- <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> code defines a list named <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code>, it is taken to be the
- list of module names that should be imported when <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> is
- encountered. It is up to the package author to keep this list up-to-date when a
- new version of the package is released. Package authors may also decide not to
- support it, if they don’t see a use for importing * from their package. For
- example, the file <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound/effects/__init__.py</span></code> could contain the following
- code:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">__all__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span><span class="s2">"echo"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"surround"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="s2">"reverse"</span><span class="p">]</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>This would mean that <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code> would import the three
- named submodules of the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package.</p>
- <p>Be aware that submodules might become shadowed by locally defined names. For
- example, if you added a <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse</span></code> function to the
- <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound/effects/__init__.py</span></code> file, the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
- would only import the two submodules <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> and <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code>, but <em>not</em> the
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse</span></code> submodule, because it is shadowed by the locally defined
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">reverse</span></code> function:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="n">__all__</span> <span class="o">=</span> <span class="p">[</span>
- <span class="s2">"echo"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># refers to the 'echo.py' file</span>
- <span class="s2">"surround"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># refers to the 'surround.py' file</span>
- <span class="s2">"reverse"</span><span class="p">,</span> <span class="c1"># !!! refers to the 'reverse' function now !!!</span>
- <span class="p">]</span>
- <span class="k">def</span> <span class="nf">reverse</span><span class="p">(</span><span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">:</span> <span class="nb">str</span><span class="p">):</span> <span class="c1"># <-- this name shadows the 'reverse.py' submodule</span>
- <span class="k">return</span> <span class="n">msg</span><span class="p">[::</span><span class="o">-</span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="p">]</span> <span class="c1"># in the case of a 'from sound.effects import *'</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>If <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is not defined, the statement <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>
- does <em>not</em> import all submodules from the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> into the
- current namespace; it only ensures that the package <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> has
- been imported (possibly running any initialization code in <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>)
- and then imports whatever names are defined in the package. This includes any
- names defined (and submodules explicitly loaded) by <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code>. It
- also includes any submodules of the package that were explicitly loaded by
- previous <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/simple_stmts.html#import"><code class="xref std std-keyword docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span></code></a> statements. Consider this code:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.echo</span>
- <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects.surround</span>
- <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">sound.effects</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="o">*</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>In this example, the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> and <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code> modules are imported in the
- current namespace because they are defined in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package
- when the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from...import</span></code> statement is executed. (This also works when
- <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__all__</span></code> is defined.)</p>
- <p>Although certain modules are designed to export only names that follow certain
- patterns when you use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">*</span></code>, it is still considered bad practice in
- production code.</p>
- <p>Remember, there is nothing wrong with using <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">package</span> <span class="pre">import</span>
- <span class="pre">specific_submodule</span></code>! In fact, this is the recommended notation unless the
- importing module needs to use submodules with the same name from different
- packages.</p>
- </section>
- <section id="intra-package-references">
- <span id="id2"></span><h3><span class="section-number">6.4.2. </span>Intra-package References<a class="headerlink" href="#intra-package-references" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p>When packages are structured into subpackages (as with the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound</span></code> package
- in the example), you can use absolute imports to refer to submodules of siblings
- packages. For example, if the module <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.filters.vocoder</span></code> needs to use
- the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">echo</span></code> module in the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">sound.effects</span></code> package, it can use <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span>
- <span class="pre">sound.effects</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">echo</span></code>.</p>
- <p>You can also write relative imports, with the <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">from</span> <span class="pre">module</span> <span class="pre">import</span> <span class="pre">name</span></code> form
- of import statement. These imports use leading dots to indicate the current and
- parent packages involved in the relative import. From the <code class="xref py py-mod docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">surround</span></code>
- module for example, you might use:</p>
- <div class="highlight-python3 notranslate"><div class="highlight"><pre><span></span><span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">.</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">echo</span>
- <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">formats</span>
- <span class="kn">from</span> <span class="nn">..filters</span> <span class="kn">import</span> <span class="n">equalizer</span>
- </pre></div>
- </div>
- <p>Note that relative imports are based on the name of the current module. Since
- the name of the main module is always <code class="docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">"__main__"</span></code>, modules intended for use
- as the main module of a Python application must always use absolute imports.</p>
- </section>
- <section id="packages-in-multiple-directories">
- <h3><span class="section-number">6.4.3. </span>Packages in Multiple Directories<a class="headerlink" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories" title="Permalink to this headline">¶</a></h3>
- <p>Packages support one more special attribute, <a class="reference internal" href="../reference/import.html#path__" title="__path__"><code class="xref py py-attr docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__path__</span></code></a>. This is
- initialized to be a list containing the name of the directory holding the
- package’s <code class="file docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">__init__.py</span></code> before the code in that file is executed. This
- variable can be modified; doing so affects future searches for modules and
- subpackages contained in the package.</p>
- <p>While this feature is not often needed, it can be used to extend the set of
- modules found in a package.</p>
- <p class="rubric">Footnotes</p>
- <dl class="footnote brackets">
- <dt class="label" id="id3"><span class="brackets"><a class="fn-backref" href="#id1">1</a></span></dt>
- <dd><p>In fact function definitions are also ‘statements’ that are ‘executed’; the
- execution of a module-level function definition adds the function name to
- the module’s global namespace.</p>
- </dd>
- </dl>
- </section>
- </section>
- </section>
- <div class="clearer"></div>
- </div>
- </div>
- </div>
- <div class="sphinxsidebar" role="navigation" aria-label="main navigation">
- <div class="sphinxsidebarwrapper">
- <div>
- <h3><a href="../contents.html">Table of Contents</a></h3>
- <ul>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#">6. Modules</a><ul>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#more-on-modules">6.1. More on Modules</a><ul>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#executing-modules-as-scripts">6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-module-search-path">6.1.2. The Module Search Path</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#compiled-python-files">6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#standard-modules">6.2. Standard Modules</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#the-dir-function">6.3. The <code class="xref py py-func docutils literal notranslate"><span class="pre">dir()</span></code> Function</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages">6.4. Packages</a><ul>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#importing-from-a-package">6.4.1. Importing * From a Package</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#intra-package-references">6.4.2. Intra-package References</a></li>
- <li><a class="reference internal" href="#packages-in-multiple-directories">6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories</a></li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- </ul>
- </li>
- </ul>
- </div>
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- <h4>Previous topic</h4>
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- title="previous chapter"><span class="section-number">5. </span>Data Structures</a></p>
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